Передача сигналов основные понятия и механизмы

Динамика числа публикаций, посвященных передаче сигналов

Signal Transduction Pathways Pathways of molecular interactions that provide communication between the cell membrane and intracellular endpoints, leading to some change in the cell

Molecular Interactions Protein-protein interactions –Binding or unbinding (formation or breaking of complex) –Covalent modification: phosphorylation (tyr, thr, ser) –Conformation changes –Translocation –Targeting for degradation Small molecule regulated events –Binding or unbinding, resulting in conformation change: Steroid ligand, nucleotide binding –Production of second messengers (e.g. Ca+2)

Multi-Step Regulation of Gene Expression DNA Primary RNA transcript mRNA Degraded mRNA Protein Active Protein Degraded Proteinn Transcription control RNA processing control RNA transport control nucleuscytosol mRNA degradation control mRNA translation control protein activity control Protein degradation control

Major themes in ST The internal complexity of each interaction The combinatorial nature of each component molecule (may receive and send multiple signals) The integration of pathways and networks

Integration of Signals The signals from several different sources may be integrated though a single shared protein (A) or protein complex (B)

Amplification 1 receptor activates multiple G proteins Each enzyme Y produces many second messangers, each messanger activates 1 enzyme Y 1 ligand-receptor 500 G-protein 500 enzymes 10 5 (2 nd messanger) 250 (ion channels) (ions)

Intracellular Endpoint Three major molecular targets –Regulation of gene expression (e.g. activate a transcription factor and translocate it to the nucleus) –Changes in the cytoskeleton (e.g. induce movement or reorganization of cell structure) –Affect metabolic pathways Many critical processes can occur in response to external signals, without any new synthesis of RNA or proteins. The most well known one is cell suicide, termed apoptosis

Change in the cell An animal cell depends on multiple extracellular signals Multiple signals are required to survive, additional to divide and still others to differentiate When deprived of appropriate signals most cells undergo apoptosis DIFFERENTIATE F G

Споруляция миксомицетов А-сигналлинг: trp, pro, phe, tyr, leu, ile С-сигналлинг: p20 мембрано-связанный белок

Распределение генов эукариот по функциям

Независимая эволюция ядерных рецепторов в разных группах эукариот

Способы передачи сигналов от клетки к клетке Через воздействие паракринных факторов, взаимодействие клеток с внеклеточным матриксом, через межклеточные контакты

Signal source A signaling cell produces a particular particular type of signal molecule This is detected in another target cell, by means of a receptor protein, which recognizes and responds specifically to its ligand We distinguish between Endocrine, paracrine and autocrine signaling. The latter often occurs in a population of homogenous cells. Each cell responds to a limited set of signals, and in a specific way

Signaling Molecule The signal molecule is often secreted from the signaling cell to the extracellular space In some cases the signaling molecule is bound to the cell surface of the signaling cell. Sometimes, a signal in both cells will be initiated by such an event.

Receptors Cell surface receptors detect hydrophilic ligands that do not enter the cell Alternatively, a small hydrophobic ligand (e.g. steroids) may cross the membrane, and bind to an intracellular receptor Cells may also be linked through a gap junction, sharing small intracellular signaling molecules GAP JUNCTIONS

Cell Surface Receptors Ion channel linked: Binding of ligand causes channel to open or close G-protein linked: Binding of ligand activates a G-protein which will activate a separate enzyme or ion channel Enzyme linked receptor: Binding of ligand activates an enzyme domain on the receptor itself or on an associated molecule

Intracellular receptors Small hydrophobic signaling molecules, such as steroids, can cross the cell membrane (e.g. estrogen, vitamin D, thyroid hormone, retinoic acid) and bind to intracellular receptors The hormone-receptor complex has an exposed DNA binding site and can activate transcription directly (or, more typically as a homo- or hetero-dimer) This usually initiates a cascade of transcription events PRIMARY RESPONSE SECONDARY RESPONSE Shut off primary response genes Turn on secondary response genes

Second messengers In many pathways, enzymes are activated which catalyze the formation of a large quantity of small molecules These second messengers broadcast the signal by diffusing widely to act on target proteins in various parts of the cell This may often result in the release of other second messengers Activated enzyme: PLC 2 nd messenger: IP 3 Target: Ca+2 channels in ER Release of Ca+2, another also 2 nd messenger Ligand – GPCR interaction

Трансдукция сигнала через тирозинкиназные рецепторы (каскад участников сигналинга: паракринный фактор, рецептор, адапторные молекулы, MAP-киназы, транскрипционные факторы)

Multi-state regulation of a single protein Calmodulin- dependent kinase II (CaM Kinase II): Four different activity states based on a combination of protein binding, ion binding and phosphorylation state

Сигналинг от паракринных факторов суперсемейства TGF- бета. Транскрипционные факторы Smad-семейства

Использование компонентов известных сигнальных каскадов от рецепторов для инициации сигналов внеклеточным матриксом и молекулами клеточной адгезии

Путь Wnt-сигналинга

Путь Hedgehog-сигналинга

Взаимообразные обмены сигналами Wnt (wingless)- и Hh (hedgehog) - путей сигналинга у Drosophila

Трансдукция сигнала при взаимодействии мембраносвязанных лигандов и рецепторов (Delta/Notch -боковой сигналинг)